Today is Monday; 28th of the Iranian month of Tir 1395 solar hijri; corresponding to 13th of the Islamic month of Shawwal 1437 lunar hijri; and July 18, 2016, of the Christian Gregorian Calendar.

2406 solar years ago, on this day in 390 BC, during the Roman-Gaulish Wars, the Roman army was defeated in the Battle of the Allia, on the banks of the river of the same name, 18 km from Rome, leading to the subsequent sacking of Rome.

1952 solar years ago, on this day in 64 AD, the Great Fire of Rome caused widespread devastation and raged on for six days, destroying over half of the city. Emperor Nero, who had usurped the throne through treachery, torched the city while sadistically enjoying the sight of its burning from a hill. A Godless pagan, he persecuted, tortured and killed the monotheist followers of Prophet Jesus (AS).

1654 solar years ago, on this day in 362 AD, Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate – who renounced Christianity and reverted to paganism – arrived at the Syrian city of Antioch (currently in Turkey) with an expeditionary force of 60,000 and stayed there for nine months to launch a war on the Persian Empire, which after initial success in Iraq, resulted in his defeat and death in the Battle of Samarra. Following his death, General Jovian was declared Roman Emperor and had to make a humiliating peace with Sassanid Emperor, Shapur II, by ceding five provinces to the Iranians and making a pledge against interfering in the affairs of Armenia. The great success for Shapur II – known as Zu'l-Aktaaf or Broad-Shouldered to the Arabs for his conquest years earlier of Yamama in central Najd in the desert interior of the Arabian Peninsula – is represented in the rock-carvings in Bishapur near Kazeroun in Fars Province, where under the hooves of the Persian Emperor's horse lies the body of Roman Emperor Julian, while a supplicant Roman (that is, new Emperor Jovian), begs for peace.

1300 solar years ago, on this day in 716 AD, Mohammad bin Qasim, the Arab governor of Iran on behalf of his tyrannical uncle and father-in-law, Hajjaj bin Yousuf, and conqueror of Sindh – in present day Pakistan – was killed at the age of 20, as a result of imprisonment and torture ordered by the new Omayyad caliph, Sulaiman bin Abdul-Malik, who was a bitter enemy of the bloodthirsty Hajjaj. Among the reasons for Mohammad bin Qasim's ruthless campaign to seize Sindh and try to push into India, was the refuge offered by the local rulers to Iranians and Arab Muslims fleeing the reign of terror of Hajjaj, on whose death, 50,000 men and women -- mostly followers of the Prophet's Household -- were found in the prisons.

1243 lunar years ago, on this day in 194 AH, the famous Iranian Sunni Muslim compiler of hadith, Mohammad Ibn Ismail Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Bardizbah ibn Bazzabeh Bukhari, was born in the ancient Iranian city of Bukhara in what is now the Republic of Uzbekistan, in a family which before conversion to Islam was either Zoroastrian or Jewish. He started collecting hadith from anyone who could relate. In his late teens, along with his brother and mother, he travelled to Mecca for pilgrimage. After visiting the centres of learning, exchanging information on hadith from over 1,000 persons, and recording more than 600,000 narrations, he returned to his hometown after a 16-year absence. Here he compiled his "al-Jame' as-Sahih", which is revered as "Sahih Bukhari" by Sunni Muslims, and contains 7,275 hadith selected as per his inclination. Although he has acknowledged some of the unparalleled merits of the Ahl al-Bayt, he did not visit the rightful heirs of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA) or met their disciples for precise information on authentic hadith. It is claimed that it was fear of the wrath of the Abbasid regime that made him omit any hadith related from such an outstanding authority as the Prophet's 6th Infallible Heir, Imam Ja'far Sadeq (AS), but he felt no inhibitions to include in his so-called "Sahih" narrations from dubious persons – even avowed enemies of the Prophet's Household. In 250 AH he settled in Naishapur in Khorasan, following his expulsion from Bukhara for issuing a weird fatwa against the letter and spirit of the shari'ah that persons drinking the milk of the same cow, goat or donkey, are foster siblings and hence ineligible for marriage with each other. Here he met another Iranian with Sunni inclinations, named Muslim Ibn Hajjaj, who became his student, and eventually collector of a separate book on hadith, known as "Sahih Muslim". Bukhari died at the age of 62 while on a visit to Khartank, a village near Samarqand.

1092 solar years ago, on this day in 924 AD, the powerful Abbasid vizier, Abu’l-Hassan Ali ibn Mohammad ibn al-Furat, was executed along with his son al-Muhassin, at the age of 69, shortly after his deposition, mainly because of his military failures against the Qarmatian revolt. He served three times as vizier under caliph al-Muqtadir, despite being a follower of the Ahl al-Bayt of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA). Intelligent and well educated, Ali emerged into prominence as an able fiscal administrator and deputy to his older brother Ahmad. Eventually he came to lead one of the two major and rival court factions during Muqtadir’s caliphate, the Banu'l-Furat – the other being the group of officials around the commander-in-chief Mu'nis al-Muzaffar and the vizier Ali ibn Isa al-Jarrah – a convert to Islam from Christianity. He played an important role in the selection of Muqtadir as caliph in 908, going on to serve as vizier in 908–912, during which time he succeeded in re-incorporating Fars Province in central Iran into the Abbasid caliphate and to restore a measure of authority over the Sajids of Azarbaijan. After a second tenure in 917–918 he was imprisoned by his successor, and was released in 923, becoming vizier for the third and last time soon after. Ibn al-Furat distinguished himself as an extremely able fiscal administrator committed to the reform of abuse and the raising of state revenues without oppression. At the same time, his primary loyalty was not to the Abbasid regime, but to the progress of followers, who formed almost a Twelver Sh’ia "secret politico-religious party".

821 solar years ago, on this day in 1195 AD, the Battle of Alarcos in Spain resulted in a resounding victory for the al-Muwahiddin ruler, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur, over King Alfonso VIII of Castile. It resulted in the retreat of the Christian forces to Toledo while the Muslims liberated the occupied regions of Trujillo, Montanchez and Talavera. In 1189 Yaqub al-Mansur had returned from Marrakesh, in North Africa to fight the Portuguese who, as part of a Christian alliance, had occupied the region of Silves. He liberated the area and started consolidating Muslim rule in Spain. After the resounding victory in the Battle of Alarcos, he went back to North Africa, and as a result of ill-health lost interest in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula. He died in February 1199, and his death encouraged the Christians to gather mercenaries from different parts of Europe to attack and harass the Spanish Muslims once again.

726 solar years ago, on this day in 1290 AD, King Edward I of England issued the Edict of Expulsion, banishing all Jews, which numbered around 16,000. The expulsion was culmination of over 200 years of conflict between Christians and Jews on the matter of usury, for which the Israelites are still notorious. Moreover, the Christians deeply resented the slandering of Jesus and his Virgin mother, Mary, by the Jews. The Edict of Expulsion lasted 350 years during which Jews were not allowed to set foot on the soil of England, until it was overturned by Oliver Cromwell, who made the fatal mistake of inviting Jews to England.

674 solar years ago, on this day in 1342 AD, Shaikh Hassan Juri, one of the prominent leaders of the Sarbadaran Movement was martyred in the Battle of Zava, near what is now Torbat-e Haideriyeh in northeastern Iran, because of disunity in his ranks. It is said that he was killed by traitors among his own forces, rather than by the opposite side led by Mu'iz od-Din Hussain, the ruler of the Kartid Dynasty of what is now western Afghanistan. The Sarbadar movement was launched in Khorasan by Imami religious scholar, Sheikh Khalifa Mazandarani, against the repressive rule of the Ilkhanid Mongols, especially the local governor Togha Timur, who was notorious for his cruelty and high taxation of the people. The movement, which was mostly made up of the downtrodden was centered in Sabzavar from where it spread to neighboring cities. Its charismatic leaders included Hassan Juri and later Ali Mu’ayyad, all of whom revived the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA). For the next 50 years, the Sarbadar – a Persian term which means, heads bound on gallows, to signify their readiness for martyrdom – ruled most of Khorasan, although not on dynastic basis. They regarded as their spiritual leader, Shaikh Mohammad Jamal od-Din al-Makki al-Ameli of what is now Lebanon, who was subsequently martyred in his homeland by the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt, and earned immortality as Shaheed al-Awwal (First Martyr). When Amir Timur swept from Central Asia across Iran ending the Ilkhanid Dynasty, he respected the Sarbadaran and even appointed many Sabzavaris to high posts in Iraq and Iran.

625 solar years ago, on this day in 1391 AD, Amir Timur defeated Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde in present day southeast Russia in the Battle of Kondurcha River. The two Turkic warlords fought each other for over a decade in the Caucasus, Turkistan and Eastern Europe. Timur had earlier helped Tokhtamysh to assume supreme power in the White Horde against the latter's uncle Urus Khan. Tokhtamysh thus united the White and Blue Hordes to form the Golden Horde and launched a massive military campaign against the Russian principalities in 1381-82 to restore Turko-Tartar power as far as Lithuania which he defeated in 1383. He then cast eyes on the Caucasus, Iran and Central Asia, and turned against his old ally, Timur, who decisively routed him in the Battle of the Terek River in 1395.

526 lunar years ago, on this day in 911 AH, the famous jurisprudent Shaikh Zayn od-Din al-Juba'i al-Ameli, known as “Shaheed Thani” (Second Martyr), was born in Jabal Amel in Lebanon. He is believed to have some connection with Tous in Khorasan, because he occasionally signed his name as "at-Tousi ash-Shami" – the second part pertaining to Greater Syria since Lebanon like Palestine and Jordan is actually a part of Syria. After initial study under his father, he was groomed for some 8 years by the celebrated Shaikh Ali bin Hussain bin Abd al-Aali Muhaqqaq Karki, and by the age of 33 became a Mujtahed. He had also studied in Damascus under Sunni ulema, and became an authority on such texts as “Sahih Bukhari” and “Sahih Muslim”. He visited Egypt to study medicine, geometry, prosody and logic from different teachers. He performed the Hajj pilgrimage and visited Bayt al-Moqaddas, in addition to travelling to Iraq for the pilgrimage to the shrines of the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt. During a visit to Istanbul had a lively discussion with the Chief Qazi of the state, Mohammad bin Mohammad Qazizadah ar-Roumi, to whom he presented a treatise titled “Ten Knowledges” that greatly impressed the latter. He was permitted to teach at the Nooriyah Islamic School in Ba’lbek, where he taught the five schools of Islamic jurisprudence, that is, Ja'fari, Hanafi, Shafei, Maliki and Hanbali. Apart from proficiency in jurisprudence, he was well versed in theology, philosophy, Gnosis, medicine and astronomy. A man of piety, known for his austere way of life, his students have recorded in his biography that he maintained his family by selling wood that he cut during the nights, and then sat to teach during the day. Some pseudo ulema adverse to Islamic unity, conspired against him, labeled false accusations, and complained to the Ottoman Sultan. In mid Ramadhan 965 AH, he was brutally beheaded on his way to see the Sultan, and a shrine was built by Turkmens on the site as they realised his stature. His assassin was killed on the Sultan's orders. He is the author of several books, but his greatest work is the commentary he wrote on the jurisprudential manual "Lum'at-ad-Dimashqiyya" (The Damascene Glitter) of the First Martyr, Mohammad Jamal od-Din al-Makki al-Ameli, titled "ar-Rawdhat-al-Bahiyah ft Sharh al-Lum'at-ad- Dimashqiyya" (The Beautiful Garden in Interpreting the Damascene Glitter).

233 solar years ago, on this day in 1783 AD, the English astronomer, William Herschel, discovered the nature of galaxies. He observed the stars with the telescope he invented and proved that the Milky Way Galaxy consists of stars, while the Solar System is also part of this galaxy. He also discovered the Planet Uranus. He died at the age of 84 years in 1822 AD.

199 solar years ago, on this day in 1817 AD, English author Jane Austen died at age 41. Her works of romantic fiction, made her one of the most widely read writers. Her realism, biting irony and social commentary have gained her historical importance among scholars and critics. Among her best works are: “Sense and Sensibility” (1811), “Pride and Prejudice” (1813), and “Emma” (1815).

114 lunar years ago, on this day in 1323 AH, the prominent Islamic scholar, Ayatollah Shaikh Mohammad Taha, passed away at the age of 83. Born in holy Najaf in Iraq, he acquired knowledge under the prominent Islamic scholar, Sheikh Morteza Ansari Dezfuli. He was a polymath in theology, principles of theology, hadith, and exegesis of the Holy Qur'an. He has left behind several books, including an Annotation on "Ma'alem al-Osoul".

99 lunar years ago, on this day in 1338 AH, Ayatollah Mirza Mohammad Taqi Shirazi issued the fatwa for jihad against the British invaders of Iraq, following the occupation of Basra and Baghdad during World War I. Known as the “Revolution of the 1920s”. The edict united Iraqis, who initially inflicted defeats on the British army, until crushed by the superior fire power of the invaders. The British martyred Ayatollah Mirza Taqi Shirazi through poisoning, exiled to Iran Sheikh Kashef al-Gheta and Sheikh Mohammad Khalesi, and installed in Baghdad an imported king – Faisal, a son of the British agent of Hejaz, Sharif Hussain.

98 solar years ago, on this day in 1918 AD, Nelson Mandela, South African lawyer and politician, and 1st President of South Africa, was born in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then a part of South Africa's Cape Province. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape Province. One of this king's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Mandela attended Fort Hare University and the University of Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannesburg, he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining the African National Congress (ANC) and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the Afrikaner minority government of the National Party established apartheid in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 Defiance Campaign, was appointed superintendent of the organisation's Transvaal chapter and presided over the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested. In 1963 he was convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the apartheid regime and sentenced to life. In 1990, he was released after 27 years in prison and was accorded a very warm welcome by the black people of South Africa. In 1991, an agreement was reached between Mandela and the minority regime for ending the apartheid system, and in 1994, after holding of the first multiracial elections Mandela was elected as the first black president of South Africa. He stepped down from office in 1999 and died in 2013.

91 solar years ago, on this day in 1925 AD, Nazi leader, Adolf Hitler, published “Mein Kampf” (My Struggle). He wrote this autobiographical manifesto as National Socialist leader serving a prison sentence. In this book, which was widely received by the public, Hitler outlined his political ideology and future plans.

57 lunar years ago, on this day in 1380 AH, the famous Source of Emulation (Marja’), Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Hussain Borujerdi, passed away in the holy city of Qom at the age of 88 and was laid to rest in the mausoleum of Hazrat Fatema Ma’soumah (SA). Born in Boroujerd in a scholarly family descended from Imam Hasan Mujtaba (AS), the elder grandson and second Infallible Heir of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA), he completed his higher studies at the Islamic Seminary of holy Najaf, under prominent ulema such as Akhound Mullah Mohammad Kazem Khorasani, Ayatollah Shaikh osh-Shari’ah Isfahani, and Allamah Seyyed Kazem Yazdi, on his return to Iran, he became head of the Qom Islamic Seminary. A pious scholar well versed in different Islamic sciences, he promoted the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt abroad by sending Seyyed Muhaqqiqi to Hamburg, Germany, Aqa-e-Shari'at to Karachi, Pakistan, al-Faqihi to Medina and Seyyed Musa as-Sadr to Lebanon. He established cordial relations with Mahmoud Shaltut, the grand Shaikh of Egypt’s al-Azhar Seminary. Together, the two scholars established in Cairo the "Centre for Proximity among Islamic Schools of Jurisprudence”. Shaltut issued a famous fatwa accepting the Shi'a faith as one of the recognised sects of Islam. Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi opposed the Pahlavi regime's agrarian policies as "agrarian destruction." In his view, the confiscations of large concentrations of landholdings disrupted the fabric of rural life and eroded religious institutions. He groomed a large number of scholars such as Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Reza Golpayegani, Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Sistani, Grand Ayatollah Lotfollah Safi Golpayegani, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Fazel Lankarani, Grand Ayatollah Nasser Makarem Shirazi, Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari, Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Hussaini Beheshti, etc. He wrote several books and treatises.

36 solar years ago, on this day in 1980 AD, the renowned Islamic scholar and literary figure, Jalal od-Din Homai, passed away. Born in Isfahan in a virtuous family, he started learning under his father, and after attending the seminaries, attained the status of Ijtehad. He was a polymath in literature, philosophy, jurisprudence, theology, and astronomy. He groomed numerous students, and was a prolific writer. Among his books is “The History of Iran’s Literature”. He also prepared school and university textbooks on literature and Islamic teachings.

30 solar years ago, on this day in 1986 AD, the Iranian researcher, Seyyed Mohammad Taqi Modarris Razavi, passed away at the age of 91. He studied religious sciences, literature and modern humanities. On establishment of Tehran University, he became head of the college of rational and traditional sciences, as well as the college of literature and humanities. He researched and edited several classical Persian works such as “Tarikh-e Bukhara” and “Mojmal at-Tawarikh”.

4 solar years ago, on this day in 2012 AD, Iranian meteorologist and academic, Mohammad Hassan Ganji, passed away in Tehran at the age of 100. Born in Birjand, in southern Khorasan, he is called the father of modern geography in Iran. Ganji established the Iran Meteorological Organization in 1955 and served as the head of Iran's Department General of Meteorology from 1956 to 1968.

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