Today is Tuesday; 10th of the Iranian month of Mordad 1396 solar hijri; corresponding to 8th of the Islamic month of Zil-Qa’dah 1438 lunar hijri; and August 1, 2017, of the Christian Gregorian Calendar.

2047 solar years ago, on this day in 30 BC, Roman general Octavian (later Emperor Augustus Caesar), entered Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under control of the Roman Republic, after defeating his rival Marcus Antonius, who committed suicide. During his long reign of 41 years, his most important diplomatic move was conclusion of a peace treaty with Emperor Farhad IV (Phraates IV) of Iran’s Parthian Empire that ensured peace on Rome’s eastern frontiers, in what are now Palestine, Syria, and Turkey; in addition to return of the Roman Eagle Standards lost by Crassus to the Iranians in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.

2047 solar years ago, on this day in 30 BC, Roman general and politician, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) committed suicide in Egypt at the age of 53 on being defeated by his former friend and now rival Octavian (Augustus Caesar). Antony was a confidante and military commander in the conquest of Gaul (France) of the famous Roman dictator, Julius Caesar, on whose assassination in 44 BC, he formed a triumvirate with Marcus Lepidus and Octavian (Caesar’s maternal grandnephew and adopted son) to defeat the assassins – who were supported by the Parthian Empire of Iran. The three divided the Roman domains between themselves, with Antony’s lot being the eastern provinces including Greece, the Levant, and the client kingdom of Ptolemic Egypt, whose promiscuous queen, Cleopatra, he took as his lover – a factor that brought about his downfall and his being branded as a traitor by the Senate in Rome. Without the permission of the Senate, he invaded Iranian possessions in what are now Palestine, Syria, Turkey and Armenia, with an army of about 100,000 Roman and allied troops that were financed by Cleopatra. Although after capturing Jerusalem and surrounding areas in 37 BC, he installed Herod as puppet king of Judaea, replacing the Parthian appointee Antigonus, the campaign proved a disaster. After defeats in battle, the desertion of his Armenian allies and his failure to capture Parthian strongholds, he retreated to Egypt in 36 BC and again in 34 BC, as his army lost more than a quarter of its strength. Soon his ties deteriorated with Octavian, whose sister Octavia he divorced and against whom he faced defeat after defeat until his suicide.

1490 solar years ago, on this day in 527 AD, Justin I became the sole ruler of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. He strove to become the emperor of the western parts as well by conquering North Africa, Sicily, southern Spain and most of Italy from the Ostrogoths who had seized Rome. From his uncle and predecessor, Anastasius I, he inherited the war with Iran’s Sassanid Empire and in 532, a year after the defeat of Roman forces near Callinicum in what is now Turkey and the subsequent death of Emperor Qobad, he concluded an "Eternal Peace" with the new Iranian emperor, Khosrow I by paying 11,000 pounds of gold. This peace during his long reign of 38 years allowed him to concentrate on campaigns in Europe against Germanic tribes while in his capital Constantinople he ordered the building of a new Christian basilica in Constantinople – the Hagia Sophia, which is Greek for “Holy Wisdom” – as seat of the Greek Orthodox Church. In 540, however, the ‘Eternal Peace’ was broken because of Byzantine intrigues in Armenia which made Khosrow capture Beroea and then Antioch in Syria, resulting in the 22-year war that ended in 562 with conclusion of the “Fifty-Year Peace” and payment of 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year to the Iranians by the Romans.

1388 solar years ago, on this day in 629 AD, the Chinese Buddhist monk, Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), started his journey to India, via Central Asia for study of religious texts. In 633, he enrolled as student at the Nalanda Monastery in Bihar (some 88 km from modern Patna), where he stayed for over a decade, before returning to China 16 years later in 645, with hundreds of manuscripts on Buddhism, including some of the most important Mahayana texts. During the next 20 years, until his death in 664, he translated seventy-five Sanskrit works into Chinese. Influenced by the Yogacara School, he established the Weishi (Ideation Only) school of Buddhism, which won many followers in Japan as the Hosso School. Before his conversion to Buddhism, he was an adherent of Confucianism.

1115 solar years ago, on this day in 902 AD, Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold on the island of Sicily off the coast of Italy, surrendered to Muslims led by the Aghlabids, the Abbasid governors of the Province of Ifriqiyya, whose forces had already established themselves in Sicily since 827. The first Muslims to arrive in Sicily were Syrians, way back in 652. In 909 the Aghlabids, who discriminated between Arabs and Berber Muslims, were overthrown by the popular Ismaili Shi'ite revolution that established the Fatemid Dynasty in North Africa. Sicily soon passed into Fatemid hands, and the city of Taormina was renamed "al-Mu'ezziya" in honour of the Fatemid caliph, al-Mu'ez le Dinillah, whose famous Greek Muslim general from Sicily, Jowhar as-Saqali, went on to take control of Egypt from the Ikhshidid Turkic governors of the Abbasid caliphate, and build the city of Cairo as the new capital of the Fatemids. Muslim rule in Sicily lasted until 1078, when the island fell to the Norman invader, Count Roger I, who, however, kept the Arab administration intact and had Muslims among his advisers and court scholars, including the famous geographer, Seyyed Mohammad al-Hassani al-Idrisi. Muslim influence and Arabic language continued in Sicily till the 1240s when the last of the Muslims were deported from the island and mosques turned into churches.

1071 solar years ago, on this day in 946 AD, Ali Ibn Isa Ibn Da’ud al-Jarrah, the famous Iranian vizier of the Abbasid dynasty, died at the at the age of 87. Descended from a family with long history of service at the Abbasid court, he served as vizier from 913-to-917, 918-to-923, and 927-to-928. His political career, coinciding with the terminal decline of the Abbasid state, was turbulent, marked by a power struggle with his rival Abu’l-Hasan Ali Ibn al-Furat, resulting in frequent periods of exile, when the latter took over as vizier. Al-Jarrah, in contrast to the largesse of Ibn al-Furat, was austere, which earned him many enemies. He was later remembered as the "good vizier" for his administrative talent and honesty.

1059 lunar years ago, on this day in 379 AH, the Iranian Islamic astronomer, mathematician, and historian of science, Abu Hamed Ahmad Ibn Mohammed as-Saghani al-Asturlabi, passed away in Baghdad. He was from the town of Saghan in Khorasan near the city of Merv, which is presently in Turkmenistan, and lived most of his life in Baghdad. As is evident from his last surname “al-Asturlabi”, he was a maker of astrolabes and invented many other instruments, while working in the observatory built by the Sharaf od-Dowla Daylami, the Iranian Buwaiyhid ruler of Iraq. He worked on the trisection of the angle. He wrote some of the earliest comments on the history of science. These included comparison between the "ancients" that is, the Babylonians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks and Indians, and the "modern scholars", that is, the Muslim scientists of his time.

1053 lunar years ago, on this day in 385 AH, the Shafei hadith scholar Ali Ibn Omar Dar Qutni, passed away in his hometown Baghdad. After basic studies in Baghdad, Kufa, Waset and Basra, he traveled to Egypt and Greater Syria, in search of hadith. He was an authority on poetry and literature as well. Among his works, mention can be made of the book known as “Sunan Dar Qutni”, in which he has collected the hadith through different sources, and has mentioned some of the merits of the Infallible Ahl al-Bayt of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA).

750 lunar years ago, on this day in 688 AH, Iranian philosopher, Sufi writer, and Persian poet, Fakhr od-Din Ibrahim bin Bozorgmehr Iraqi, passed away in Damascus at the age of 80, and was laid to rest beside the tomb of the famous Spanish Muslim Gnostic, Sheikh Mohy od-Din ibn al-Arabi. Born in Hamadan, western Iran, he spent many years in Multan, (present day Pakistan) as well as in Konya and Toqat in present day Turkey. He was highly educated in both theology and literary disciplines and not only knew the Holy Qur'an, hadith and its exegesis, but also Persian and Arabic literature. In Multan he became a disciple of the Head of the Suhrawardi Sufi Order, Shaikh Baha od-Din Zakariyya, married his daughter, and stayed for twenty-five years. He then traveled first to Mecca and Medina, and later visited Konya, where he became a good friend of the famous Persian mystical poet, Mowlana Jalal od-Din Rumi. He also met Sadr od-Din Qunawi, who helped to shape him intellectually, as Shaikh Baha od-Din Zakariyya had shaped him spiritually. After Rumi's death, he moved to Toqat, at a time when there was much upheaval on the Byzantine border. The local ruler did not like him because of his influence over the people; so he fled to Cairo in Egypt. Later he settled in Damascus. His writings include “Lama’at” (Divine Flashes). His Diwan has been published in Iran under the title of “Kulliyaat-e Iraqi”. Another of his works is “Ushshaq-Namah” written during his stay in Multan and dedicated to the vizier Shams od-Din Juwayni.

369 solar years ago, on this day in 1648 AD, the independence of Switzerland was recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia following the end of the 30-Year War in Europe. Landlocked Switzerland covers an area of 41293 sq km and is situated in Central Europe. It shares borders with Germany, Italy, Austria, and Liechtenstein.

353 solar years ago, on this day in 1664 AD, Ottoman forces were defeated in the battle of Saint Gotthard in what is now western Hungary by an army of Austrian and allied forces, resulting in the Peace of Vasvar that lasted for almost 20 years until the Second Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1683.

273 solar years ago, on this day in 1744 AD, renowned French biologist and naturalist, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, was born. He catapulted to fame with his first book on plants of France titled “Flore Francaise”. His next book was a scientific lexicon. He conducted research on live invertebrates and fossils, and wrote the book, titled: “Zoological Philosophy: Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals”. He died in 1829.

198 solar years ago, on this day in 1819 AD, Herman Melville, US novelist, short story writer, and poet, was born in New York. His best known work is his whaling novel “Moby-Dick” (1851), in which he drew his own experiences as a sailor.

123 solar years ago, on this day in 1894 AD, the First Sino-Japanese War erupted between Japan and China over Korea.

103 solar years ago, on this day in 1914 AD, with Germany’s declaration of war against Russia, World War I broke out. Three days earlier, Austria had declared war on Serbia following assassination of its crown prince in Sarajevo. Soon the other powers of Europe were dragged in, and the war lasted four years. The Allied Powers triumphed over the German led Axis Powers, resulting in the death of at least nine million people, in addition to five million soldiers missing in action, and twenty-nine million physically disabled. After termination of World War I, the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 imposed harsh conditions on Germany, which was one of the factors for the break out of World War II twenty years later.

85 lunar years ago, on this day in 1353 AH, the prominent jurisprudent Mullah Mohammad Hussain Fesharaki, passed away in his hometown Isfahan at the age of 87. After initial study under his elder brother Shaikh Mohammad Baqer Fesharaki, he left for Iraq for higher religious studies at the famous seminary of holy Najaf, where his teachers included Ayatollah Mirza Habibollah Rashti, Ayatollah Shaikh Zain al-Abedin Mazandarani, and Ayatollah Mirza Hassan Shirazi (famous for the fatwa against tobacco consumption in order to save Iranian economy from British exploitation). On his return to Iran, he served as teacher at the seminary of Isfahan, and was active both socially and politically, in order to counter un-Islamic trends and laws creeping into the Iranian society. He formed a council of ulema in Isfahan in support of the ulema of Tehran who were active against the despotic policies of the Qajarid monarchy, and in order to safeguard Iranian economy, issued a 5-point declaration specifying that the ulema will not attest any document written on imported paper, and will not perform the funeral prayer of any deceased person whose shroud is made of imported cloth instead of Iranian cloth. Even the British installed Pahlavi dictator, Reza Khan, despite his disdain and maltreatment of the ulema, was afraid of Ayatollah Mohammad Hussain Fesharaki.

57 solar years ago, on this day in 1960 AD, Benin in West Africa declared its independence from French colonial rule that had started in 1892. Called Dahomey by the French, Benin has a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean and covers an area of over 112,000 sq km, sharing borders with Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Togo.

57 solar years ago, on this day in 1960 AD, newly built Islamabad was declared capital of Pakistan, replacing nearby Rawalpindi. Following partition of the Subcontinent, the port city of Karachi had initially served as capital.

47 lunar years ago, on this day in 1391 AH, Ayatollah Mirza Ahmad Najafi Khorasani Kifayi, passed away in holy Mashhad at the age of 91 and was laid to rest in the mausoleum of Imam Reza (AS) beside the grave of his elder brother Mirza Mahdi Ayatollahzadeh. Born in holy Najaf in Iraq to the celebrated scholar Mohammad Kazem Akhound Khorasani – author of the famous jurisprudential work “Kifayat al-Osoul” – he attended the classes of leading scholars such as Ayatollah Seyyed Abu’l-Hassan Isfahani, and his own eldest brother, Mirza Mohammad Aqazadeh Khorasani, before studying for ten years under his father, and attaining the status of Ijtehad. Of good appearance and blessed with a sharp wit and keen insight, he was also active in politics, supporting the Constitutional Movement in Iran against the despotism of the Qajarid Dynasty, and participating in the 1920 Revolution in Iraq against the British as the trusted assistant of Ayatollah Mirza Mohammad Taqi Shirazi. When the British martyred Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi Shirazi through poisoning and crushed the revolution, Ayatollah Mirza Ahmad Kifayi fled to Hijaz, staying for a year in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He returned to Najaf, but a couple of years later in 1923 (1341 AH), along with several ulema of Iranian origin, was expelled to Iran by the imported dynasty of Faisal of Mecca, whom the British installed as king in Baghdad. He took up residence in holy Mashhad, where his eldest brother was already based, and besides teaching at the seminary, played a vital role in thwarting the Russian plot to seize Khorasan. He also opposed the British installation of the illiterate soldier, Reza Khan Pahlavi, as king of Iran. The new regime imprisoned in Tehran and martyred his eldest brother Ayatollah Mirza Mohammad Aqazadeh. He now took charge of the seminary of Mashhad, before being banished to Tabriz in Azarbaijan, where during World War 2, he spared no efforts to awaken the people against the plot of the Tudeh communist party to detach this northwestern part of Iran and turn it into a Soviet republic. He returned to Mashhad during the reign of Mohammad Reza and revived the seminary. He held in high esteem the young and aspiring Father of the Islamic Revolution, Imam Khomeini (God bless him), hailing him during the 1963 Khordad 15 Uprising against the Pahlavi potentate, as “Iran’s Prime Personality” – a prediction that came true a decade and a half later.    

17 lunar years ago, on this day in 1420 AH, Ayatollah Mirza Rahim Samet passed away at the age of 99 in his hometown Qazvin. Born in an academic family to the Prayer Leader Mirza Hussain Qazvini, he traced his descent to the famous Safavid era scholar Rafi od-Din Mohammad Va’ez Qazvini (died 1089 AH), the author of “Abwaab al-Jenaan”. After preliminary religious education in Qazvin, he left for Qom for higher studies and for five years attended the classes of leading ulema, including Ayatollah Hojjat Koh-Kamarei. He then travelled to Iraq and during his ten years at the seminary in holy Najaf, where he attained the status of Ijtehad, he studied under such prominent ulema as Ayatollah Seyyed Abu’l-Hassan Isfahani, Ayatollah Zia od-Din Iraqi, and Ayatollah Mirza Hussain Na’ini. On his return to Iran, he took up teaching in his hometown, and for almost half-a-century was head of the Qazvin seminary. He groomed a large number of students and wrote several books.

AS/ME