Today is Monday; 11th of the Iranian month of Mordad 1395 solar hijri; corresponding to 27th of the Islamic month of Shawwal 1437 lunar hijri; and August 1, 2016, of the Christian Gregorian Calendar.

2046 solar years ago, on this day in 30 BC, Roman general Octavian (later Emperor Augustus Caesar), entered Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under control of the Roman Republic, after defeating his rival Marcus Antonius, who committed suicide. During his long reign of 41 years, his most important diplomatic move was conclusion of a peace treaty with Emperor Farhad IV (Phraates IV) of Iran’s Parthian Empire that ensured peace on Rome’s eastern frontiers, in what are now Palestine, Syria, and Turkey; in addition to return of the Roman Eagle Standards lost by Crassus to the Iranians in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.

2046 solar years ago, on this day in 30 BC, Roman general and politician, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) committed suicide in Egypt at the age of 53 on being defeated by his former friend and now rival Octavian (Augustus Caesar). Antony was a confidante and military commander in the conquest of Gaul (France) of the famous Roman dictator, Julius Caesar, on whose assassination in 44 BC, he formed a triumvirate with Marcus Lepidus and Octavian (Caesar’s maternal grandnephew and adopted son) to defeat the assassins – who were supported by the Parthian Empire of Iran. The three divided the Roman domains between themselves, with Antony’s lot being the eastern provinces including Greece, the Levant, and the client kingdom of Ptolemic Egypt, whose promiscuous queen, Cleopatra, he took as his lover – a factor that brought about his downfall and his being branded as a traitor by the Senate in Rome. Without the permission of the Senate, he invaded Iranian possessions in what are now Palestine, Syria, Turkey and Armenia, with an army of about 100,000 Roman and allied troops that were financed by Cleopatra. Although after capturing Jerusalem and surrounding areas in 37 BC, he installed Herod as puppet king of Judaea, replacing the Parthian appointee Antigonus, the campaign proved a disaster. After defeats in battle, the desertion of his Armenian allies and his failure to capture Parthian strongholds, he retreated to Egypt in 36 BC and again in 34 BC, as his army lost more than a quarter of its strength. Soon his ties deteriorated with Octavian, whose sister Octavia he divorced and against whom he faced defeat after defeat until his suicide.

1489 solar years ago, on this day in 527 AD, Justin I became the sole ruler of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. He strove to become the emperor of the western parts as well by conquering North Africa, Sicily, southern Spain and most of Italy from the Ostrogoths who had seized Rome. From his uncle and predecessor, Anastasius I, he inherited the war with Iran’s Sassanid Empire and in 532, a year after the defeat of Roman forces near Callinicum in what is now Turkey and the subsequent death of Emperor Qobad, he concluded an "Eternal Peace" with the new Iranian emperor, Khosrow I by paying 11,000 pounds of gold. This peace during his long reign of 38 years allowed him to concentrate on campaigns in Europe against Germanic tribes while in his capital Constantinople he ordered the building of a new Christian basilica in Constantinople – the Hagia Sophia, which is Greek for “Holy Wisdom” – as seat of the Greek Orthodox Church. In 540, however, the ‘Eternal Peace’ was broken because of Byzantine intrigues in Armenia which made Khosrow capture Beroea and then Antioch in Syria, resulting in the 22-year war that ended in 562 with conclusion of the “Fifty-Year Peace” and payment of 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year to the Iranians by the Romans.

1439 lunar years ago, on this day in the third year prior to the Hijra, or migration to Medina, Prophet Mohammad (SAWA) left for the city of Ta'ef, to invite the people to Islam, following growing persecution of Muslims by the pagan Arabs of Mecca, in the aftermath of the death of his uncle and guardian, Hazrat Abu Taleb (AS) and his loyal wife of 25-long years, Omm al-Momineen (Mother of all True Believers) Hazrat Khadija (SA). He met stiff opposition from idolaters in Ta’ef and returned to Mecca, although later the people of Ta’ef embraced the truth of Islam.

1387 solar years ago, on this day in 629 AD, the Chinese Buddhist monk, Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), started his journey to India, via Central Asia for study of religious texts. In 633, he enrolled as student at the Nalanda Monastery in Bihar (some 88 km from modern Patna), where he stayed for over a decade, before returning to China 16 years later in 645, with hundreds of manuscripts on Buddhism, including some of the most important Mahayana texts. During the next 20 years, until his death in 664, he translated seventy-five Sanskrit works into Chinese. Influenced by the Yogacara School, he established the Weishi (Ideation Only) school of Buddhism, which won many followers in Japan as the Hosso School. Before his conversion to Buddhism, he was an adherent of Confucianism.

1137 lunar years ago, on this day in 300 AH, the pious scholar, Sa'd bin Abdullah al-Ash'ari al-Qomi, passed away in Qom. He had the privilege of meeting Imam Hasan Askari (AS), the 11th Infallible Heir of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA). He wrote several books including "Basa'er ad-Darajaat" and was an active missionary in Iran for promotion of the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt.

1117 lunar years ago, on this day in 320 AH, Muqtadar Billah, the 18th self-styled caliph of the usurper Abbasid Dynasty, was killed by his slave guard after 25 years of misrule that bankrupted the state and increased the people's misery, while the Byzantines felt emboldened to attack at will and occupy large territories in Asia Minor or what is now Turkey. The killing of this caliph, who spent all his time with musicians and dancers in the harem, had been foretold by the Commander of the Faithful, Imam Ali (AS).

1114 solar years ago, on this day in 902 AD, Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold on the island of Sicily off the coast of Italy, surrendered to Muslims led by the Aghlabids, the Abbasid governors of the Province of Ifriqiyya, whose forces had already established themselves in Sicily since 827. The first Muslims to arrive in Sicily were Syrians, way back in 652. In 909 the Aghlabids, who discriminated between Arabs and Berber Muslims, were overthrown by the popular Ismaili Shi'ite revolution that established the Fatemid Dynasty in North Africa. Sicily soon passed into Fatemid hands, and the city of Taormina was renamed "al-Mu'ezziya" in honour of the Fatemid caliph, al-Mu'ez le Dinillah, whose famous Greek Muslim general from Sicily, Jowhar as-Saqali, went on to take control of Egypt from the Ikhshidid Turkic governors of the Abbasid caliphate, and build the city of Cairo as the new capital of the Fatemids. Muslim rule in Sicily lasted until 1078, when the island fell to the Norman invader, Count Roger I, who, however, kept the Arab administration intact and had Muslims among his advisers and court scholars, including the famous geographer, Seyyed Mohammad al-Hassani al-Idrisi. Muslim influence and Arabic language continued in Sicily till the 1240s when the last of the Muslims were deported from the island and mosques turned into churches.

1056 lunar years ago, on this day in 381 AH, the renowned Iranian theologian and philosopher, Abu'l-Hassan Mohammad ibn Yusuf al-Ameri, passed away in his hometown Naishapur in the northeastern province of Khorasan. He believed that Islam was the perfection of all religions, and the revealed truths of Islam were thus superior to the conclusions of philosophy, however logical, although the two did not contradict each other. He also believed that the Greeks, who produced such philosophers as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, did not have a final say because they as a society, lacked a prominent prophet, who ought to have a final say in all forms and matters. Ameri lived in a half century period between two other Iranian Islamic geniuses, Abu Nasr al-Farabi and Abu Ali Hussain Ibn Sina. He first studied under Abu Zayd al-Balkhi in Khorasan, before moving to Rayy near modern Tehran and then to Baghdad, where he met such noted intellectuals as Abu Hayyan Ali ibn Mohammad at-Tawhidi and Abu Ali Ahmad ibn Mohammad Ibn Miskawayh. After several years he returned to Iran and took up residence in Bukhara, where he had access to the royal library of the Iranian Samanid Dynasty. His works include: "al-E'laam be Manaqeb al-Islam" (An Exposition on the Merits of Islam), and "Inqadh al-Bashar min aj-Jahr wa'l-Qadar" (Deliverance of Mankind from the Problem of Predestination and Free Will).

1070 solar years ago, on this day in 946 AD, Ali Ibn Isa Ibn Da’ud al-Jarrah, the famous Iranian vizier of the Abbasid dynasty, died at the at the age of 87. Descended from a family with long history of service at the Abbasid court, he served as vizier from 913-to-917, 918-to-923, and 927-to-928. His political career, coinciding with the terminal decline of the Abbasid state, was turbulent, marked by a power struggle with his rival Abu’l-Hasan Ali Ibn al-Furat, resulting in frequent periods of exile, when the latter took over as vizier. Al-Jarrah, in contrast to the largesse of Ibn al-Furat, was austere, which earned him many enemies. He was later remembered as the "good vizier" for his administrative talent and honesty.

368 solar years ago, on this day in 1648 AD, the independence of Switzerland was recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia following the end of the 30-Year War in Europe. Landlocked Switzerland covers an area of 41293 sq km and is situated in Central Europe. It shares borders with Germany, Italy, Austria, and Liechtenstein.

352 solar years ago, on this day in 1664 AD, Ottoman forces were defeated in the battle of Saint Gotthard in what is now western Hungary by an army of Austrian and allied forces, resulting in the Peace of Vasvar that lasted for almost 20 years until the Second Siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1683.

337 lunar years ago, on this day in 1100 AH, the pious scholar Seyyed Mirza Ala od-Din Golestaneh passed away. He traced his lineage to Imam Hasan Mojtaba (AS),the elder grandson and 2nd Infallible Successor of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA). He authored the valuable book “al-Hada’eq” which is commentary on “Nahj al-Balaghah” (Highway of Eloquence), the collection of the eloquent sermons, letters, and maxims of the Commander of the Faithful, the Prophet’s 1st Infallible Heir, Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (AS). He later summarized it under the title “Bahjat al-Hada’eq”. Among his works, mention could be made of “Manhaj al-Yaqeen” – a collection of letters and admonitions of the Prophet’s 6th Infallible Successor, Imam Ja’far Sadeq (AS). Golestaneh was the brother-in-law (wife’s brother) of the celebrated scholar, Allamah Mohammad Baqer Majlisi.  

272 solar years ago, on this day in 1744 AD, renowned French biologist and naturalist, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, was born. He catapulted to fame with his first book on plants of France titled “Flore Francaise”. His next book was a scientific lexicon. He conducted research on live invertebrates and fossils, and wrote the book, titled: “Zoological Philosophy: Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals”. He died in 1829.

122 solar years ago, on this day in 1894 AD, the First Sino-Japanese War erupted between Japan and China over Korea.

107 solar years ago, on this day in 1909 AD, Ayatollah Shaikh Fazlollah Noori was martyred in Tehran through hanging by agents of colonial powers. He strove to promote justice in society, playing a leading role in the Constitutional Movement against the despotism of the Qajarid Kings. After formation of the first national parliament and drafting of the Constitution, he voiced his protest to some of its clauses which were contrary to Islam. He staged a sit-in at the shrine of Hazrat Abdul-Azim in Rayy, south of Tehran, along with other leading activists, ending the protest when parliament promised not to contradict the shar'ia. Colonial agents plotted against him and martyred him on trumped up charges.

105 lunar years ago, on this day in 1332 AH, the Gnostic Seyyed Ahmad Karbalai, passed away. Born in Iran, he grew up in the holy city of Karbala and studied under such prominent scholars as Akhund Mullah Mohammad Kazem Khorasani and Mullah Hussain-Qoli Hamadani. He was an expert on ethics and among his students mention could be made of the Martyr Shaikh Mohammad Taqi Bafqi, Seyyed Mohammad Kazem Assar, the famous Gnostic Mirza Ali Aqa Qazi Tabatabai, and Seyyed Mohsin Amin al-Ameli of Syria – author of the voluminous biographical encyclopedia “A’yaan ash-Sh’ia”.

102 solar years ago, on this day in 1914 AD, with Germany’s declaration of war against Russia, World War I broke out. Three days earlier, Austria had declared war on Serbia following assassination of its crown prince in Sarajevo. Soon the other powers of Europe were dragged in, and the war lasted four years. The Allied Powers triumphed over the German led Axis Powers, resulting in the death of at least nine million people, in addition to five million soldiers missing in action, and twenty-nine million physically disabled. After termination of World War I, the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 imposed harsh conditions on Germany, which was one of the factors for the break out of World War II twenty years later.

56 solar years ago, on this day in 1960 AD, Benin in West Africa declared its independence from French colonial rule that had started in 1892. Called Dahomey by the French, Benin has a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean and covers an area of over 112,000 sq km, sharing borders with Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Togo.

56 solar years ago, on this day in 1960 AD, newly built Islamabad was declared capital of Pakistan, replacing nearby Rawalpindi. Following partition of the Subcontinent, the port city of Karachi had initially served as capital.

28 solar years ago, on this day in 1988 AD, the UN fact-finding team to Iran and Iraq, published two reports, announcing that the Ba'th minority regime of Saddam had used chemical weapons against Iran several times during the 8-year US-imposed war. This was the first admission of the UN about the wide-scale use of chemical weapons by the Iraqi army against Iran. Nonetheless, the UN Security Council did not issue any resolution against Saddam’s use of internationally banned chemical weapons against Iran. During the imposed war, Saddam frequently attacked both Iranian combatants and civilians with toxic weapons, but the West which had equipped him with these illegal arsenal, turned a blind eye to his crimes against humanity. For this reason, hours after release of reports by the UN probe team, Iraqi jetfighters chemically bombarded the western Iranian city of Oshnavieh, injuring 2,400 civilians. The UN fact-finding team also confirmed the occurrence of the Iraqi attack that took place after acceptance of ceasefire by Iran.

26 solar years ago, on this day in 1990 AD, the prominent Iranian musician, Morteza Nay-Davoud, died at the age of 90. A student of Gholam-Hussein Darvish, in addition to cooperation with the national radio network, he founded a school of music, and groomed students.

10 solar years ago, on this day in 1427 AH, Ayatollah Mirza Jawad Tabrizi passed away at the age of 82 in Qom and was laid to rest in the holy mausoleum of Hazrat Ma’souma (SA). Born in Tabriz, after completing his preliminary religious studies, he moved to Qom at the age of 22 and studied under such prominent scholars as Ayatollah Hojjat and Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Hussain Boroujerdi. At the age of 26, he travelled to holy Najaf in Iraq, where his teachers included Grand Ayatollah Seyyed Abu’l-Qassim Khoei. On attaining the status of Ijtehad, he returned to Iran and started holding classes at the Qom seminary on jurisprudence and other branches of Islamic sciences. He wrote several including “Irshad at-Taleb”, “Tabaqaat ar-Rejaal” (Biography of Narrators) and the 6-volume “Siraat an-Najaat” (Path of Salvation).

AS/SS