Today is Tuesday; 2nd of the Iranian month of Shahrivar 1395 solar hijri; corresponding to 20th of the Islamic month of Zi’l-Qa’dah 1437 lunar hijri; and August 23, 2016, of the Christian Gregorian Calendar.

2036 solar years ago, on this day in 20 BC, Emperor Augustus Caesar, who transformed the Roman Republic into an empire, held grand celebrations in Rome with games and feasts within the temple precinct of Vulcan, to mark the treaty with Emperor Farhad IV (Phrates IV) of Iran’s Parthian Empire, which returned after 33 years the legionary Eagle Standards captured by the Iranians in the Battle of Carrhae (presently in Turkey) – one of the most crushing defeats in Roman history. Augustus, who as a ten-year boy during the dictatorship of his grand uncle Julius Caesar, had memories of this decisive defeat inflicted on the Romans by the famous Iranian general, Surena, was also aware of the disastrous defeats suffered by Mark Antony in 34 BC when he tried to confront the Iranians in Levant and Anatolia. Augustus’s treaty with Iran’s Parthian Empire that ensured peace in what are now Palestine, Syria, and Turkey; 

1382 solar years ago, on this day in 634 AD, Abu Bakr, who assumed the caliphate (political rule of the Islamic state), following the passing away of the Almighty's Last Messenger, Prophet Mohammad (SAWA), died, after a rule of 2 years, three months and 22 days. Son of Osman ibn Amer of the Tamimi clan of the Qureish, he is said to have given up idolatry and become a Muslim in the early days of the Prophet's proclamation of the divine mission, well after the initial private invitation to the near relatives. He found himself propelled to the caliphate at the dubious gathering of Saqifa Bani Sa'dah, where following a heated dispute and a fistfight among the Mohajer (migrants from Mecca) and Ansar (helpers from Medina) as to who should be the caliph, his friend Omar ibn Khattab suddenly pulled his hand and proclaimed him caliph. This action created the greatest discord in the Islamic ummah, the scars of which are still evident on the body politic of the Ummah today. Many of the Prophet's companions questioned Abu Bakr's credentials in the absence of any ayah of the holy Qur'an or a statement from the Prophet in his favour. Most of them vividly recalled that only two months and ten days earlier on 18th Zilhijja, 10 AH, while returning from his Farewell Hajj pilgrimage, the Prophet had halted at Ghadeer-Khom on God's express commandment to proclaim as vicegerent his dear cousin and son-in-law, Imam Ali ibn Abi Taleb (AS), regarding whose prime position in Islam and his God-given merits, God's Messenger had always emphasized upon. It is also an undeniable fact of Islamic history, as found in all reliable texts, the Prophet's daughter, Hazrat Fatema Zahra (SA), strongly protested the usurpation of the political right of her husband in an eloquently moving sermon, but sadly she became the target of the wrath of the new regime, which in a bid to force Imam Ali (AS) to swear allegiance to Abu Bakr, stormed her house with fire and crowbars and smashed upon her the door – as a result of which she suffered miscarriage, broken ribs, and eventual martyrdom. In short, before his death, Abu Bakr made a will in favour of his friend, Omar ibn Khattab, as the next caliph, ignoring the protests of many companions of the Prophet, such as Talha ibn Obaidollah.    

1198 solar years ago, on this day in 818 AD (as per the Gregorian calendar), Imam Ali ar-Reza (AS), the 8th Infallible Heir of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA), was martyred through poisoning in Tous, Khorasan, by the crafty Mamoun, who styled himself caliph of the usurper Abbasid regime. Imam Reza (AS), whose shrine in Mashhad, northeastern Iran is the site of pilgrimage for the faithful from all over the world, needs no introduction. His period of imamate of 20 years during which he held aloft the torch of Islamic guidance by implementing in society the genuine Sunnah (practice) and Seerah (behaviour) of his ancestor, the Prophet.

1167 lunar years ago, on this day in 270 AH, the founder of the short-lived Tulunid Dynasty of Egypt, Ahmad Ibn Tulun, died after a 17-year rule during which he killed at least eighteen thousand people. His father, Tulun, was a Turkic slave sent as part of a tribute by the Iranian governor of Bukhara to the Abbasid caliph, Ma'mun. The Abbasids used to recruit Turkic slaves to serve as military officers. Ibn Tulun received military training in Samarra, the new Abbasid capital, where he was appointed commander of the special forces of the tyrannical caliph, Mutawakkil. After serving in military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire in Tarsus, he gained the favor of Musta'in, and in the reign of the next caliph, Mu'taz, he was sent as governor to Egypt. Since, the then capital of Egypt, al-Fustat, was too small to accommodate his armies, he founded a new city nearby called “Madinat al-Qatta'i” (or the Quartered City), to serve as his capital. It was laid out in the style of the grand cities of Iran, including a large public square, a palace, and a large ceremonial mosque, which was named after Ibn Tulun. This city was razed on the fall of the Tulunid Dynasty, and only the mosque has survived. Ibn Tulun asserted his independence from the Baghdad caliphate by minting coins in his name and seizing control of large parts of Syria. He defeated an Abbasid army sent to Egypt against him. Within two decades after his death, the inefficient rule of his son and grandsons brought about the collapse of the dynasty and re-imposition of Abbasid rule on Egypt.

1067 lunar years ago, on this day in 370 AH (980 AD), the prominent Iranian Islamic genius, Abu Ali Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina, was born near Bukhara, capital of the Iranian Samanid Dynasty – presently in the Republic of Uzbekistan. He memorized the Holy Qur'an at a young age and soon mastered logic, medicine, astronomy, geometry, and philosophy, such that at the age of 18 years, he was an authority in all the sciences of his day. After curing the Samanid King, Nouh ibn Mansour, of an ailment, he was allowed to use the large royal library at Bukhara. He was a genius, who because of his political views and religious inclinations towards the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt found himself persecuted by Sultan Mahmoud of Ghazna. As a result he joined the Buwaiyhid court in Rayy before settling in Hamedan and later Isfahan where he served as vizier as well. Known as Avicenna to medieval Europe, his works were translated into Latin and for several centuries were taught at most western universities. Among his books mention can be made of “ash-Shefa” on philosophy; “al-Qanoun fi't-Tibb” (Canons of Medicine), and "Isharaat wa'l-Tanbihat"(Remarks and Admonitions). He wrote almost all his works in Arabic and of the few books written by him in his native Persian is the "Danishnama-e Alai" (Book of Knowledge for [Amir] Ala od-Dowlah). It covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music, and other sciences of his time. He passed away in Hamedan at the age of 58.

1056 lunar years ago, on this day in 381 AH, the famous Greek Muslim general and statesman of the Fatemid Ismaili Shi'ite Muslim dynasty of Egypt and North Africa, Jowhar bin Abdullah as-Siqili, or the Sicilian, passed away. He conquered Egypt and the built the city of Cairo including the famous al-Azhar Mosque and academy. Born a Christian on the island of Sicily near what is now Italy, he embraced the truth of Islam and joined the service of the Fatemids, soon rising into prominence as “al-Kateb” (the Chancellor) and “al-Qa'ed” (the General). He subdued North Africa as far as the Atlantic coast and then turned towards the east to wrest control of Egypt from the Ikhshidid Turkic governors of the Abbasid caliphate. He built Cairo as the new capital of the Fatemids, by publicly bearing testimony in the Azaan, or the call to prayer, to the imamate of Imam Ali (AS) after the Prophethood of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA). The phrase "hayya ala khayr il-amal", meaning ‘hasten to the best of deeds’, which was dropped from the Azaan by the second caliph, was also revived and echoed from the minarets of "al-Azhar", which is a derivative of "Az-Zahra" or the Radiant, the famous epithet of Hazrat Fatema (SA) the Immaculate Daughter of Prophet Mohammad (SAWA).

981 lunar years ago, on this day in 456 AH, the North African Arabic poet, literary figure, and critic, Abu Ali Qairawani, passed away at the age of 66. Born in what is now Morocco, after basic studies, he travelled to Qairawan, in what is now Tunisia, to study under prominent scholars. His poems are mainly odes, which depict the different phases of his social and literary life. He created a new approach in criticism of literary works. He wrote several books including a biography of poets.

772 solar years ago, on this day in 1244, Bayt al-Moqaddas (Jerusalem), was besieged and liberated once again by the Muslims shortly after King Frederick II had taken its control without a fight during the 6^th Crusade, along with Bethlehem, Nazareth and several other towns, as per a treaty with the Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamel. Soon, however, the Ayyubid ruler invited the Khwarazmian clan to liberate it.

634 solar years ago, on this day in 1382 AD, the Mongol Muslim ruler, Tokhtamysh Khan of the Golden Horde laid siege to Moscow, the capital of the Grand Russian Duchy in order to avenge the defeat of the Mongols at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The fall of Moscow three days later resulted in the death of 24,000 Russian soldiers. A descendant of Orda Khan and an ally of Amir Timur (the famous Central Asian Turkic Conqueror), Tokhtamysh had assumed power in the White Horde in 1378, and then annexed the Blue Horde to form the Golden Horde, which soon annihilated an army sent by Muscovy. After defeating Lithuania, in 1383 Tokhtamysh thirsted for territorial ambitions in the Caucasus, Iran and Central Asia, by turning against his ally, Timur, who resolved to punish him. The war between the two dragged on for 16 years and led to a series of defeats for Tokhtamysh, who was pursued and killed in Tyumen, Siberia, in 1406.

502 solar years ago, on this day in 1514 AD, the decisive Battle of Chaldiran was fought between Shah Ismail Safavi I of Iran and Sultan Salim I of the Ottoman Empire in the plain of the same name between the two northwestern Iranian cities of Tabriz and Khoy. The Safavids, while on the verge of victory against the Ottomans, who were all prepared to flee the battlefield in the face of cavalry charges, faltered at the last moment when confronted by canons, which enabled the Turks to defeat the Iranians. The Ottomans briefly occupied Tabriz, but retreated on news of regrouping of the Safavids for the counterattack. Another factor that influenced the outcome of the battle was the calm on the subdued European front of the Ottoman Empire in the west, in contrast to the invasion of Iran's northeastern frontier in Khorasan by the Uzbeks that forced the Safavids to divide their forces to confront the threat at the other end of the empire. Chaldiran was the first battle between the two empires which intermittently fought each other for over 250 years for control of the Caucasus, parts of Anatolia and Iraq. Chaldiran is considered one of the decisive battles, and if the Iranians had won it they would have easily gained control of Anatolia and Syria where the Safavid Sufi order had large number of adherents amongst the Turkic speakers. In fact, it was this popularity of the Safavids in what is now Turkey that made a frightened Sultan Salim ruthlessly persecute and kill the followers of the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt – as many as 70,000. Two years later in 1516, despite his treaty with the Mamluk Dynasty, Selim deceptively attacked Syria and occupied Egypt in 1517, as pre-emptive measures to prevent any tilt towards the Safavids, especially after Shah Ismail sent a diplomatic delegation to the Republic of Venice through Syrian ports on the Mediterranean Sea.

421 solar years ago, on this day in 1595 AD, during the Long War (1591–1606), Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave after some resistance against the Ottoman army of Sinan Pasha in the Battle of Calugareni retreated northward. The advancing Turkish Muslims captured the Romanian capital, Bucharest, and the next important city of Targoviste as well as Stoienesti.

402 solar years ago, on this day in 1614 AD, during the Fettmilch Uprising, Jews were expelled from Frankfurt in what was then the Holy Roman Empire, following the plundering of the Judengasse, because of the heavy interest rates charged by the Jews as well as their slandering of the fundamentals of Christianity, such as the insulting of Prophet Jesus and his virgin mother, Mary (peace upon them).

254 solar years ago, on this day in 1762 AD, the poet and literary figure, Andrea Chenier, was born. During the struggles of French revolutionaries, he was detained and executed in 1794 on the charge of opposition to the suppressive policies of the radical figure, Robespierre.

195 solar years ago, on this day in 1821 AD, after 11 years of war, Spain granted Mexico independence as a constitutional monarchy. Soon an expansionist US seized large parts of Mexico, which today form most of the southern states, such as Texas, California, etc.

183 solar years ago, on this day in 1833 AD, the British Parliament passed a law abolishing slavery in its colonies by Aug 1, 1834. This would free some 700,000 enslaved black Africans, including those in the West Indies. The Emancipation Act also allowed blacks to enjoy greater equality under the law in Canada as opposed to the US. Some 46,000 white people were paid a total of 20 million pounds in compensation for freeing their slaves.

177 solar years ago, on this day in 1839 AD, Britain seized Hong Kong Island from China base as it prepared for war with the Qing Empire. The ensuing 3-year conflict would later be known as the First Opium War. British occupation of Hong Kong ended on 30 June 1997. The next day China assumed control declaring it a special administrative region with a high degree of autonomy under the principle of one country, two systems.

87 solar years ago, on this day in 1929 AD, Palestinians, both Muslims and Christians, rose against the illegal Jewish migrants of Europe in the city of al-Khalil in what is now the West Bank of River Jordan. The British occupation authorities were force to relocate the Zionists, but continue to hurt Arab feelings by bringing from Europe and illegally settling hundreds of thousands of more Jews, until the illegitimate birth of the Zionist entity in 1948.

77 solar years ago, on this day in 1939 AD, a 10-year non-aggression pact was concluded between Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union. Less than two years later, Hitler violated the pact by launching his invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941.

74 solar years ago, on this day in 1942 AD, as many as 40,000 German troops lost their life in the gory Battle of Stalingrad – present day Volgograd – following Hitler's massive assault on this Soviet city which fiercely resisted the Nazis. The failure to take Stalingrad marked the turning point in World War 2 and finally led to the defeat of Germany.   

50 solar years ago, on this day in 1966 AD, Lunar Orbiter 1 took the first photograph of Planet Earth from orbit around the Moon.

38 solar years ago, on this day in 1978 AD, Hojjat al-Islam Seyyed Ali Andarzgou, was martyred by the Shah's regime. He started his struggles at the age of 19 and joined the Islamic Coalition Group after acquaintance with Hojjat al-Islam Navvab Safavi, who was eventually martyred. Andarzgou was among those who planned the revolutionary execution in 1965 of the Shah's Prime Minister, the notorious Hassan-Ali Mansour, who mortgaged Iran's sovereignty by signing the scandalous Capitulation Accord granting judicial immunity to US nationals in Iran. For the next 13 years, Andarzgou, who was sentenced to death in absentia, continued his underground activities against the Shah's despotic regime, until he was identified and attained martyrdom in an armed clash.

38 solar years ago, on this day in 1978 AD, Professor Mohammad Parvin Gonabadi, passed away at the age of 75. A student of the famous scholar, Adib Naishapuri, he took to the teaching profession, and following acquaintance with the celebrated lexicographer, Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, he joined his team in the preparation of the voluminous Persian lexicon, “Lughatnameh”. Among the works of Professor Gonabadi is the Persian translation of Ibn Khaldoun’s “Muqaddamah”, and the editing of Maybodi’s “Kashf al-Asrar” and “History of Bala’mi”.

26 solar years ago, on this day in 1990 AD, the Republic of Armenia declared independence on the eve of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. This Caucasus region, called Armenistan in Persian, was an integral part of successive Iranian empires throughout history, and at times was an arena of contest between the Romans and the Sassanids, and later the Safavids and the Ottomans. Russia seized it from Iran in the 19^th century. The majority of people of Armenia are Christian, with a small Muslim minority.

5 solar years ago, on this day in 2011 AD, Libyan dictator, Mu’ammar Qadhafi, was overthrown after the National Transitional Council forces took control of Bab az-Azizia compound with assistance from NATO airplanes and US backing against the eccentric military colonel whom the West had installed in 1969 and now discarded him after having fully exploited him.

AS/ME